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Trinidad and Tobago

Trinidad and Tobago > Countries > Home

This report was compiled by Ronald Bryce, the National Coordinator of
the Caribbean Land and Water Resources Network (CLAWRENET)
and Hydrologist at the Ministry of Agriculture, Land and Marine Resources (MALMR),
Trinidad and Tobago.

Overview
Land resources
Water resources
Plant nutrient resources
Hot spots
Bright spots
Challenges and viewpoints
References / Related internet links

Please note that in order to preserve the necessary detail, some of the maps in this report may be relatively large and will take a little more time to load.

1. Country overview

1.1 Geography and administrative units

1.2 Socio-economic features

1.3 Climate

1. > top

1.1 Geography and administrative units

Geographical location
Trinidad and Tobago is situated at the southernmost end of the Caribbean island chain between 10º and 11º 30' N latitude and 60º 30' and 62º W longitude. Both islands cover a total land area of 5123 square kilometres, with Tobago being 300 square kilometres. Trinidad and Tobago also comprises smaller islands off the Northwest coast of Trinidad, of which the main ones are Gaspar Grande, Monos, Huevos and Chacachacare, as well as Little Tobago and St. Giles off the Northeast coast of Tobago. Trinidad is separated from Venezuela at its nearest points on the north-western and south-western peninsulas by distances of about 13 kilometres, and from Tobago by a distance of 32 kilometres.

Administrative units

[Map 1.1.1: Geographical location]

[Map 1.1.2: Administrative units]

[Map 1.1.3: Map of the Caribbean]

1.1 > 1.

1.2 Socio-economic features

Population
In 1996, the population of Trinidad and Tobago was estimated at 1 269 000. Of the total population, males accounted for 50.4 percent and females 49.6 percent. During 1994, the total mid-year population for Trinidad and Tobago was 1 249 738 inhabitants. The population is concentrated in urban areas in northwest Trinidad and in San Fernando and approximately 90 percent of the population live along the west coastal area and the foothills of the northern range. Most of the population of Tobago (Table 1.2.1) is concentrated in the southwest part of the island. Some characteristics of the population are displayed in Table 1.2.2. Population data for 1996-1999 are displayed in Table 1.2.3. Population data for 2000-2002 are presented in Table 1.2.4. The percentage population by Ethnic group is detailed in Table 1.2.5. Data on the labour force and unemployment are listed in Table 1.2.6 and Table 1.2.7 respectively.

Economy
The country has extensive reserves of petroleum and natural gas and well-developed heavy industries, such as iron and steel, methanol, nitrogenous fertilizers, and petrochemicals. Trinidad and Tobago was essentially an agricultural economy up to the beginning of the twentieth century, when sugar production played a dominant role and the cultivation of cocoa, coconuts, and coffee played lesser parts.

Other successful enterprises have primarily been in services: banks, insurance firms, and other financial institutions, as well as trading companies and distributors. The tourism industry is targeted for greater development and is growing. But tourism, primarily in Tobago, still accounts for only 2.5 percentof GDP (Chart 1.2.1). Figures on tourist arrivals by air are given in Table 1.2.8. The direction of trade is displayed in Chart 1.2.2.

The role of agriculture in the country's economy
From 1970 to 1990 the agricultural sector’s percentage contribution to the country’s GDP, fell from 6.4 percent of the total GDP (at factor cost) in 1970 to 3.2 percent in 1990. Since 1990 the agricultural sector’s declining contribution to total GDP continued, reaching 1.8 percent valued at $TT 659 million ( about 6.13 $ TT/ US$) in 1997. This trend was due in large part to a 60 percent and 50 percent decline in the percentage contribution of both export agriculture and the sugar industry, respectively. In 1998, however, the agricultural sector’s percentage contribution to total GDP (at factor cost) increased by 10 percent over 1997 and was valued at $TT 787 million (Table 1.2.9).

During the last decade, the agricultural sector employed approximately 10 percent of the population. Since 1990, the number of persons employed in the agricultural sector has steadily declined from 10 percent to just under 8 percent in 1997 (Table 1.2.10).

Major food crops, cash crops and trends in production
Sugarcane: Sugarcane is the most important crop produced in Trinidad, and accounted for approximately 40 to 50 percent of total agricultural GDP from 1990 to 1998. The single largest producer is the state-owned company, Caroni (1975) Ltd., which cultivates approximately 122 sq km, while private farmers cultivate 142 sq km. Production of raw sugar has shown a steady increase peaking at 117 thousand tonnes in 1995, compared with 85.4 thousand tonnes in 1987. Since 1996, however, raw sugar production has declined on average by 22 percent reaching 64,685 tonnes in 1998. Decline in raw sugar production for the 1997 year was due to heavy rainfall experienced in the first two months of the year and unplanned fires, which resulted in immature canes being harvested. Sugar is exported to guaranteed markets in the United States of America through the Caribbean Basin Initiative (CBI) agreement and to the European Union through the Sugar Protocol and Special Preferential Sugar (SSP) Agreement of the fourth Lome Convention (Lome IV) (Chart 1.2.3).

Caroni (1975) Ltd: In 2002-3, the Government initiated a re-structuring exercise of Caroni(1975) Ltd. The key components of this exercise are:

Caroni(1975)Ltd. would no longer be involved in sugar cane cultivation and sugar production;

The Sugar Manufacturing Company Limited (SMCL) – a wholly-owned State enterprise – was established to engage in sugar production and refining;

Sugar cane supply would be provided by private farmers of whom approximately 6,000 have agricultural leases with Caroni; and

All lands owned by Caroni(1975)Ltd. would be vested in the State with the enactment of a Vesting Act and those lands would be subsequently managed by the Estate Management and Business Development Company Limited (EMBD). The (EMBD) was established in 2003.

Land Use. In 2004, an Inter-Agency Land Use Planning Team assessed the existing Caroni lands as 30,643.2 hectares which represents approximately 25 percent of the arable land in Trinidad. These lands are divided into 16 Sections as represented on Map 1.2.1. In addition, Caroni(1975)Ltd. also owned lands known as Mora Valley in the vicinity of Rio Claro comprising 662.4 hectares. These lands were categorized within the framework of the Trinidad and Tobago Land Capability Survey Protocol (1974) under which lands are classified within seven (7) Classes with Class I being lands best suited to agriculture and Class VII characterizing lands best suited to Forestry and Environmental Protection. Table 1.2.11 shows this classification.

Agriculture. The distribution of the existing agricultural land use is represented in Table 1.2.12. The proposed agricultural land use is presented in Table 1.2.13 and summarized in Table 1.2.14.

Built Development. The sites and areas for built development were decided upon after taking into consideration the condition that the majority of lands suitable for built development should be reserved for future use within the context of a National Spatial/Settlement Strategy which would seek to ensure sustainable development and sound environmental management. This Strategy would be articulated in a new National Physical Development Plan (NPDP) for Trinidad and Tobago to be completed by 2006. The proposed land utilization with respect to built development is displayed in Table 1.2.15.

Cocoa and Coffee: The current area under active cocoa cultivation stands at 90 sq km, with average yields of 230kg/ha of dried cocoa beans. Cocoa production throughout the years has experienced cycles of increases and decreases. Since the 1990s, however, production levels have declined to less than 2,000 tonnes per annum. Reduced production levels since 1995 has been attributed to poor black pod disease control and management, following the occurrence of heavy rainfall, between December 1996 and January 1997. Consequently, exports of cocoa beans have also declined by 55 percent between 1990 and 1998 (See Chart 1.2.4).

The area under active coffee cultivation stands at 30 sq km. Similar to cocoa, local coffee production has also shown a declining trend from 1842 tonnes in 1987 to less than 1000 tonnes per annum for the period 1991 to 1996. Local coffee production reached 1114 tonnes in 1997. By 1998, production of coffee fell by 65 percent from 1996 levels, reaching a mere 390 tonnes. This near 3-fold decline in production was attributed to excessive dry weather as a result of El Nino's presence in the Caribbean, during coffee's 1997 flowering period (Chart 1.2.5).

Citrus: The area under citrus is approximately 4000 hectares copmposed as: Caroni (1975) Ltd. (now defunct) 1200ha; Palo Seco 56ha and private farmers 2700ha. Production figures and related data are given in Chart 1.2.6. The contribution of Caroni to orange and grapefruit production is dominant (see Chart 1.2.8).

New Product Development
1990 - OJ Concentrate (2 varieties)
1993 - OJ Concentrate (4 varieties)
1994 - OJ Concentrated Unsweetened Orange and Grapefruit Juices and OJ Concentrate Fruit Punch
1997 - Fresh Chilled Single Strength Juices
1998 - Reconstitute Chilled Single Strength Juices

Overseas Market
North America, Suriname, Guyana, Dominica, United Kingdom, St. Lucia, St. Kitts.

Local Market
40% is handled by Distributors
60% is handled by Industrial Buyers

We are not producing sufficient citrus fruits, and are heavily dependent on imported Concentrated Juice in order to meet market demands. Frozen concentrates imported and utilized over the past ten years translate into 825,000 crates (550 ha ) of fruit.

Food Crops: Approximately 11 sq km are currently under food crop cultivation, excluding rice paddy production. While certain high-value vegetable crops are irrigated, most production depends solely on natural rainfall. Trinidad and Tobago is self-sufficient in the production of vegetables (tomatoes, eggplants, cucurbits, crucifers, bodi, beans, spinach etc.). Vegetable and melon production reached 24 560 tonnes in 1995, an increase of 39% compared with 1985 production figure of 15 114 tonnes. Roots and tuber cultivation also improved since the mid-80s with production in 1995 increasing by 23 percent to 11 443 tonnes compared with 1985. The total quantity of green vegetables and pulses harvested during 1997 decreased by 8.2 percent and 23.4 percent, respectively, compared with the previous year. The longer and drier than usual petit careme (short dry period) had a negative impact on production. Problems affecting the food crop sub-sector include flooding, pest and diseases, land grabbing, poor access roads and the high cost of inputs.

Food security
Within the last decade, food imports as a proportion of total imports have declined, although the actual dollar value of imports has increased. In 1987, food imports accounted for 19 percent ($TT 834 million) of total imports for Trinidad. By 1997, the percentage contribution of food imports to total imports declined by more than 50% compared to 1987, with food imports representing 8 percent of the value of total imports for that year. However, the actual value of food imports for 1997 increased by approximately 47 percent to $TT 1559 million compared with 1987. Cereal and cereal preparations accounted for approximately 29.5 percent (TT$ 243 million) of the values of all imported food and live animals in 1990. This was followed by fruits and vegetables 20 percent (TT$ 170 million), dairy products 20 percent(TT$ 169 million) and meat preparations 10 percent (TT$ 87 million). Sugar and sugar preparations imports were valued at less than 1 percent of the value of food imports for that year. On the other hand, in this decade, food exports as a percentage of total exports increased by 42 percent. Food exports in 1987 were valued at $TT 190 million and represented 3.6 percent of the value of all exports. By 1997, the value of food exports out of Trinidad was $TT 944 million, representing 6.2 percent of all exports for that year. Domestic exports of fruits and vegetables rose from 6.3 percent the value of all exports in 1990 to 8.7 percent in 1996 (Chart 1.2.8).

[Map 1.2.1: Population distribution]

[Table 1.2.1: Population distribution]

[Table 1.2.2: Population and vital statistics]

[Table 1.2.3: Population, labour force and population estimates]

[Table 1.2.4: Population for 2000-2002]

[Table 1.2.5: Percentage Population By Ethnic Group]

[Table 1.2.6: Labour Force (2000-2002)]

[Table 1.2.7: Unemployment (2000-2002)]

[Chart 1.2.1: Gross Domestic Product]

[Table 1.2.8: Tourist Arrivals By Air]

[Table 1.2.9: Gross Domestic Products By Type Of Activity ]

[Table 1.2.10: Population, Labour Force And Population Estimates]

[Table 1.2.11: Land Capability of Caroni's Lands]

[Table 1.2.12: Overview of Existing Agricultural Land Use]

[Table 1.2.13: Proposed Agricultural Land Use]

[Table 1.2.14: Summary of Land Use Allocation By Type of Agricultural Activity]

[Table 1.2.15: Proposed Utilisation of Caroni Lands]

[Table 1.2.16: Education]

[Table 1.2.17: Health]

[Chart 1.2.2: Direction of trade]

[Chart 1.2.3: Sugar production and export trends]

[Chart 1.2.4: Cocoa production and export trends]

[Chart 1.2.5: Coffee production and export trends]

[Chart 1.2.6: Citrus production]

[Chart 1.2.7: Frozen concentration of citrus juices]

[Chart 1.2.8: Percentages Of Caroni's Production to CCGA]

[Chart 1.2.9: Fruit and vegetable exports]

1.2 > 1.

1.3 Climate

Climate description
Trinidad and Tobago enjoys a tropical wet, monsoonal type climate that is affected mainly by factors such as latitude, oceans, size of landmass, and topography. There are two (2) clearly defined seasons – the dry season and the wet season. The annual north to south migrations of the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) determines the seasonality. The dry season begins in January and ends between May and June 1 with March usually the driest month. The wet season begins in May or June and runs into December, with July and August usually the wettest months. A dry period of about three weeks duration occurs in September to October. This is known as the "petit careme". The average relative humidity is approximately 80% but ranges between 50% in the dry season and 100% in the wet season. The average temperature ranges from 25 degrees Celsius [C] in January, the coolest month to 27.2 degrees C in May, the hottest month. Diurnal variations in temperature average 7.3 degrees C between night and day. In Trinidad the average rainfall is 2,200 millimetres, with wide variation between 3,500 millimetres in the eastern Northern Range and 1,300 millimetres on the off-shore islands of the north west peninsula and in the southwest peninsula. The pattern for Tobago is comparable with that of Trinidad in amount, seasonality and spatial distribution.

[Chart 1.3.1: Mean monthly temperature]

[Chart 1.3.2: Mean monthly evaporation and rainfall]

[Map 1.3.1: Mean annual rainfall 1960-1990]

[Chart 1.3.3: Mean relative humidity]

1.3 > 1.

2. Land resources

2.1 Geomorphology and Physiography

2.2 Soils

2.3 Wetlands

2.4 Natural hazards

2.5 Land cover

2.6 Land use

2. > top

2.1 Geomorphology and physiography

The geomorphology of Trinidad and Tobago can be divided into four (4) major landforms. They are: Mountain Ranges, Peneplains, Terraces, Alluvium and Swamps. The Fold Mountains include the Northern Range, the Central Range and the Southern Range.

The Northern Range is a compact topographic range running in an east-west direction with many valleys running to the north and south. It culminates in the Cerro Tucuche, 935m and the Cerro Aripo, 940m. The range is asymmetric, the north slope being steeper and the north coast being under active erosion. The southern boundary is marked by a belt of foothills rising to above 152m, which represents a high level erosional plain.

The Central Range is oblong in shape, measures 56km and extends across the middle of the island from Pointe-a-Pierre to Manzanilla Point. There are three (3) main culminations from west to east: Montserrat (208m), Tamana Hill (308m), and Mt. Harris (269m); other elevations vary between 61m and 152m. The drainage pattern is very complex and at present erosion by landslides and flash flooding is prevalent.

The Southern Range is a row of hills arranged in a SW-NE direction. Individual culminations are all caused by anticlinal folds of complex geological structure. The range is about 72km long and its greatest width is approximately 16km.

There are several peneplains, of which the best preserved and most extensive is the Naparima peneplain. The Naparima peneplain is present north and south of the Central Range and occupies an altitude of 46-76m. landslips are a common feature in this region.

There are three (3) major terraces, which in order of decreasing elevation and age are: the Arima terraces (46-76m), the Mayaro-Caroni (upper) terraces (30-46m) and the lower Caroni terraces (15m). The terraces have an undulating surface and do not always present sharp edges. At places they grade into each other and have well-defined tranches cut into them by present rivers.

The two large swamps, the Nariva Swamp (83 sq km) in the east, and the Caroni Swamp (32 sq km) in the northwest are formed along the coastline. Other swamps include the Oropouche Swamp (28 sq km), and the Cedros Swamp (16 sq km). Oropouche Swamp lands are only a few metres above high-tide level.

Tobago consists of two (2) main physiographic units, the Main Ridge and the South-western lowlands. The Main Ridge is a highland area running from Northeast to Southwest and rises between 600 to 650 metres. It is asymmetrical in cross profile resulting in a gentler windward slope than its leeward face. Several steeply inclined rivers flow directly North-westwards from the highland to the leeward coast. The South-western Lowlands comprise a small coastal plain of coral terraces ending in the fringing reef at Buccoo.

[Map 2.1.1: Geomorphological Map]

2.1 > 2.

2.2 Soils

Trinidad and Tobago possesses a wide range of soils distributed over its relatively small areas and formed from five main groups of geological parent materials: igneous rock, metamorphic rock, sedimentary rock, alluvial and colluvial deposits and volcanic formation. These provide a variety of materials, which include limestones, clays, sands and gravels. A total of 119 different soil types have been recorded for Trinidad and 43 for Tobago. Some properties of the Trinidad soils are presented in Table 2.2.3.

[Map 2.2.1: Soil Map of Trinidad and Tobago]

[Map 2.2.2: Soil Erosion Catagories]

[Table 2.2.1: Trinidad Soil Classification]

[Table 2.2.2: Tobago Soil Classification]

[Table 2.2.3: Soil Physical Properties of Trinidad]

2.2 > 2.

2.3 Wetlands

[Map 2.3.1: Location of Coastal Wetlands in Trinidad and Tobago]

2.3 > 2.

2.4 Natural hazards

[Table 2.4.1: Tropical Cyclones Affecting Trinidad and Tobago]

[Table 2.4.2: Landslides and Landslips]

[Table 2.4.3: Flood Events]

[Chart 2.4.1: Frequency of Damaging Events]

2.4 > 2.

2.5 Land cover

The following land use types and sub types are recognized:

Natural Vegetation

Savannah

Swamp

Marshland

Forest

Woodland

Agriculture

Permanent pasture

Permanent field

Tree crops (sugar cane, citrus, cocoa, coffee, etc.)

Food crops (vegetables, root crops, pulses and rice paddy)

[Table 2.5.1: General Land Cover]

[Map 2.5.1: Land Cover]

2.5 > 2.

2.6 Land use

Land use types
The combined surface area for Trinidad and Tobago is approximately 5130 sq km. Trinidad, the large of the two islands, has an area approximately 4814 sq km. The first land use and capability survey for Trinidad was conducted in 1974. Then, 62.1% or roughly 3000 sq km was under natural vegetation, comprising 16 sq km in savannah, 182 sq km swamp and marshland and 2305 sq km in Forest and woodland. Land under agricultural use was estimated at 26.7% or 1289 sq km, permanent pasture at 486 sq km or 10%, while built up areas made up 10.1% or 486 sq km. Of the 1289 sq km devoted to agriculture in 1975, 91.8% or 1184 sq km was used for permanent field and tree crops such as sugar cane, citrus, cocoa, coffee, etc., while 8.2% or 1052 sq km were used in the cultivation of temporary food crops which include vegetables, root crops, pulses and rice paddy (Hardy, 1975).

As early as 1975, land capability studies revealed that agricultural land use in Trinidad did not correspond to land capability guidelines. According to Hardy (1975), only 6% or 758 sq km of the land area was suitable for cultivation, falling within land capability classes (LCC) I, II and III. However, the actual area used for agricultural purposes (1289 sq km), exceeded this requirement by 41%, suggesting agricultural activity on 531 sq km of marginal (LCC IV) or poor lands (LCC V) (See Map 2.6.1).

Land use trends
In 1997, total area under forest and woodland was 2161 sq km, representing a 6% decline from 1975. Similarly, changes in agricultural land use have followed the agricultural sector’s declining trend of the over the past 20 years. Land area under permanent crop cultivation has decreased by approximately 60% since 1975, with cultivated land areas for traditional crops such as citrus and sugar for example, declining by 65, and 40% respectively, in 1997, compared with 1975.

On the other hand, the land areas under temporary crop cultivation increase by approximately 30% or 45 sq km in 1997 compared to 1975. Of the 150 sq km devoted to farming of temporary crops such as vegetables, pulses and tubers in 1997, 5 sq km occurred on hillsides along the East-West corridor of the Northern Range, with slopes greater than 100. To date no systematic soil conservation programmes exist to address the land management needs of these sensitive areas.

Land use areal and intensity trends
Land use areal trend expresses the changes in areal extent of the land use type, where a score of - 2 indicates area coverage is rapidly decreasing, in size, i.e. > 2% per year, a score or 0 indicates area coverage stable, while a score of 2 suggest rapid increase in area coverage, i.e. >2% per year.

Land use intensity trends expresses the change in the intensity of land use through changes in inputs, management or number of harvest, etc., over approximately the last 10 years score of 2 indicates major increase while a -2 rating suggest a major decrease in land use intensity.

[Map 2.6.1: Land Use Map]

[Table 2.6.1: Land Use Table]

[Table 2.6.2: Changes in Land Use for Trinidad]

2.6 > 2.

3. Water Resources (AQUASTAT)

3.1 Hydrography

3.2 Irrigation and drainage

3. > top

Additional country information on water resources are available at AQUASTAT.

3.1 Hydrography

Water Resources
Groundwater is found throughout most of Trinidad. About two-thirds of Trinidad’s current water supply is taken from groundwater aquifers. The known major groundwater areas include the Northern Valley aquifers in alluvial deposits at Chaguaramas, Tucker Valley, Diego Martin and Port of Spain; the alluvial fan deposits at El Soccorro, Valsayn, Tacarigua and Arima; the artesian aquifers in the Sum Sum and Durham sands; the reef limestones of the Central range; and sands in the Erin, Morne L’Enfer, and Mayaro formations of Southern Trinidad.

The recent establishment of bedrock wells will eventually alter the contribution of groundwater to the total supply.

Large-scale development of surface water has been limited to four rivers in Trinidad and Tobago. These are the Quare River in the Northern Range, the Navet and Caroni Rivers in the Central Range in Trinidad, and the Hillsborough River in Tobago, which is the principal source of supply for Scarborough and southwest Tobago.

[Map 3.1.1: Surface Water Quality]

[Chart 3.1.1: Estimated Existing Average Daily Demand and Supply]

3.1 > 3.

3.2 Irrigation and drainage

Irrigation and Drainage Development
Irrigation in Trinidad involves small diversions from creeks and streams at works built by private individuals. Irrigation resulting from gravity flow where part or all of the stream flow can be diverted is also practised in floodplains. This type of irrigation takes place on a small scale on the Guanapo, Aripo, and San Juan Rivers, and on a large scale on the Caroni and South Oropouche Rivers. The largest engineered irrigation system is the Caroni system, constructed to serve the surrounding rice fields. This system diverts up to 45425 cubic metres per day from the Caroni River at the Kelly Headworks via a feeder canal to the Guayamare River, from which feeder canals distribute the water over an area of about 12 sq km. Similar projects are planned for the Oropouche Lagoon and the Nariva Swamp. Maximum irrigation use at present is estimated at 75708 cubic metres per day during the dry season.

Irrigation potential (method of calculation)
A preliminary report on the irrigation requirements and potential within the Caroni River watershed by S. Hirai (Japan Technical Co-operation Plan for Latin America) indicates that a rice culture programme with a 7-month per year growing season, the maximum demand for irrigation water would be 355 828 cubic metres per day. This would provide irrigation of 42 sq km of land, 25 sq km of which are currently part of the Caroni swamp and may not be reclaimed for agricultural purposes.

Irrigation and Agriculture
The need for irrigation in Trinidad depends mainly upon rainfall and varies for different localities. The rainfall pattern over the dry season (January to May) falls considerably short of the potential evapotranspiration for the five-month period. Hardy (1975) estimates a regular need of 25 to 76 millimetres of irrigation per month during this time.

Percentage Crop Irrigated and Common Irrigation techniques
In 1981, the total area irrigated in Trinidad was 55 sq km, representing just 7 percent of the land area under agricultural cultivation at that time. Surface irrigation systems such as splash and furrow irrigation were the predominant irrigation systems, accounting for 35 percent of all irrigated lands (Chart 3.2.1). Pump and flooding methods, were used on 26 and 18 percentof all irrigated lands, respectively. On Tobago, just 1 sq km of agricultural land received irrigation, representing just 5 percent of the island’s total agricultural land area. Sprinkler irrigation systems were the most prevalent, occurring on 61 percent of all irrigated lands, followed by splash and furrow (19 percent), other (13 percent) and pumps (6 percent).

It is suspected that the land area under irrigation would have increased marginally since 1981 to coincide with the increase in land areas devoted to temporary crop cultivation. However, current estimates of the percentage land area irrigated in Trinidad are not known. Authorities at the Land and Water Development Division of the Ministry of Agriculture Land and Marine Resources (MALMR), maintain that surface splash and furrow irrigation still remain the most common irrigation systems used in Trinidad.

Irrigated crops
The major irrigated crops are lowland vegetables and rice paddy. Little or no irrigation occurs on hillsides vegetable farms or for tree crops such as coffee, citrus and cocoa during the dry season. (Table 3.2.1)

In 2004, the Ministry of Agriculture, Land and Marine Resources (MALMR) introduced drip irrigation systems on selected farms in Trinidad with the aims of quantifying the differences between the drip-irrigated and traditionally-irrigated areas in (a) yields, (b) water use and labour cost . The project also investigates some water quality parameters in the selected farming areas. The programme was extended to more farms in 2005 and is scheduled to continue to 2008.

In 2005, the FAO, working through MALMR’s personnel initiated a project that installs drip irrigation on farms with vegetable or vine-growing crops in Trinidad and Tobago. This programme extends to 2007. These installations being used as demonstration farms leading to the adoption of the technology by an increasing number of farmers.

Planned irrigation developments
1. Rehabilitation of the Aranguez area to optimize the use of irrigation water.
2. Rehabilitation and expansion of the cropped area to four times the actual situation.
3. Irrigation of 3.5 sq km in the Kernahan area.
4. Establishment of 20 sq km of irrigated land in the Couva Basin
5. Irrigation of 4 sq km citrus on the La Gloria Estate
6. Establishment of ponds (through incentives) to increase irrigated production.

Institutional Environment
The existing and recommended institutional environments are displayed in Table 3.2.2.

Trends in water resources and irrigation development - perspectives
1. The Water Resources Management Strategy Report has been accepted by Cabinet.
2. Activities are ongoing to establish the Water Resources Management Authority.
3. Work is ongoing in developing a Water Resources Management Policy.

[Map 3.2.1: Road and Drainage Network]

[Chart 3.2.1: Irrigation Systems Used as Percentage of Total Land Irrigated]

[Table 3.2.1: Irrigated Schemes and Irrigation Projects]

[Table 3.2.2: Existing Institutional Environment]

3.2 > 3.

4. Plant nutrient resources

4.1 Soil Fertility and Plant Nutrient Management Practices

4.2 Fertilizer production and costs

4.3 Quantification of Nutrient Losses Balance Sheets for NPK

4.4 Main Causes of Soil Fertility Decline and Soil Degradation

4.5 Opportunities and Knowledge Base

4. > top

4.1 Soil fertility and plant nutrient management practices

Use of plant nutrient resources
Inorganic fertilizers used by farmers in Trinidad and Tobago comprise a wide range of single and multiple synthesized formulations for liquid, foliar or solid applications. Formulations sold for crop application are either chemically compounded (imported blends) or mechanically mixed at the National Agrochemical fertilizer plant at Point Lisas. Trinidad and Tobago is a producer and exporter of nitrogenous fertilizers in the form of urea and ammonia. However, potassium, phosphate and micronutrient carriers are imported for either direct use of blending. Additionally, secondary nutrients, calcium, magnesium and sulphur do not exist as economic or quality ore and have to be imported for both direct use and incorporation in blends.

Survey data for the Research Division indicate that the fertilizer trade in Trinidad and Tobago was 23 865 metric tons, of which 17 770 (74.5%) represents urea and 6095 metric tons represent mixed NPK fertilizer mechanically and chemically compounded or single P and K fertilizers. Fifty-two formulations comprising ten singles and forty-two combinations are recorded. The actual plant nutrient content (N, P2O5, K2O) of the fertilizers used is 10 844 metric tons. Phosphate fertilizers represent 53 metric tons or 5 percent of plant nutrient use while potassium fertilizers represent 1429 metric tons or 13 percent and nitrogen 8886 metric tons or 82 percent of plant nutrient.

Organic plant nutrient use has not been quantified. However, applications of poultry manure is widespread in the domestic vegetable industry with rates ranging from 1 - 20 tons per hectare per annum. Crops most frequently fertilized include pumpkins, hot peppers, watermelons and papaya. Application of by-products - bagasse, filter press mud, distillery waste, sawdust, wood chips as soil ameliorants is localized, especially for grow-boxes and container plants.

Limestone
Limestone use in Trinidad and Tobago is very low although 75 percent of the soils (368 000 ha) are acidic with pH values ranging from <4.5 to 5.9. Additionally 32 percent of the soils exhibit extreme acidity in the subsoils. Estimated limestone use in Trinidad and Tobago is 1500 metric tons per year. Soil test results for the period 1998 - 2000 indicate that more than three quarters of samples where moderately to strongly acidic (Table 4.1.1). Limestone recommendations range from 1 to 10 tons per hectare. The reasons for the acidification of soils in Trinidad and Tobago by 1 - 1.5 pH units include inter alia

Increasing use of urea, especially in sugarcane soils
Loss of organic matter and hence reduced cation exchange capability
Loss of bases through crop removal and leaching
Soil erosion.

The low rate of limestone use is a function of the high price of limestone relative to fertilizers, the low quality of domestic limestone resources and the absence of incentives for soil amelioration.

Trends in mineral fertilizer and pesticide consumption
In 1981, 60 percent or 627 sq. km of all agricultural (1032 sq. km) land in Trinidad were treated with chemicals other than inorganic fertilizers. Insecticides and weedicides were the most common chemical treatment, applied to 52 percent and 41 percent respectively, of treated agricultural land. Chemicals used in disease management were applied to only 6.6 percent or 42 sq km or all agricultural lands.

28 214 tonnes of inorganic fertilizers were applied to 497 sq. km or 40 percent of the total agricultural land. 42 percent or 11 860.8 tonnes of this application was sulphate of Ammonia, 31 percent mixed fertilizer, 5 percent lime and 21 percent classified as other.

[Table 4.1.1: Soil Fertility Abstracts - Trinidad and Tobago Soil Acidity]

4.1 > 4.

4.2 Fertilizer production and costs

Fertilizer production in Trinidad is a secondary industry derived from the energy sector. In 1992, there were five fertilizer producers in the country. By 1996 however, only three remained: Hydro Agri Trinidad limited, National Agro-chemicals Ltd., and PCS Nitrogen Limited.

Through the '80s and '90s, local production of chiefly nitrogen-based fertilisers steadily increased. In 1997, production of anhydrous ammonia and urea increased by 2.2 and 4 percent, respectively, from 1995. Between 1990 and 1997, approximately 94 and 87 percent of all urea and anhydrous ammonia fertilisers produced in Trinidad were exported, reached 2.7 million tonnes. However, local sales of mineral fertilizers have generally declined since 1995. Sales of anhydrous ammonia for example, reached an all-time low of 12 200 tonnes, representing a 97 percent decrease from the 1995 sales figure of 352 100 tonnes.

[Table 4.2.1: Fertilizer Imports]

4.2 > 4.

4.3 Quantification of nutrient losses balance sheets for NPK

There has been no systematic effort to quantifying nutrient losses from cropping system in Trinidad and Tobago. However published papers from U.W.I. have commented on the efficiency of nitrogen utilization through labeling studies under a GTZ/ UWI project. Efficiency of nitrogen utilization ranges from 50 – 60 percent, a normal value for agricultural systems. The majority of studies report on the influence of fertilizer rates on yield response of crops – cereals, root crops, sugar cane and vegetables.

An attempt was made to quantify the fertilizer consumption patterns in Trinidad and Tobago by crop type (Table 4.3.1). The annual use of plant nutrients (N, P2O5, K2O) is 9660 metric tons. However, the estimated requirement for plant nutrient use based on estimated of crop removal and soil requirements is 27 900 metric tons. The deficit results from:

The low level of fertilization of tree crops (cacao, coffee, citrus).
Deficits in the application of phosphate and potash fertilizers to all crops. Analysis of soil test data (1998 – 2000) indicate that soil acidity and low Phosphate and Potash levels were the most frequent soil fertility limitations to crop productivity and ninety percent of the recommendations included the need for improved phosphate and potash nutrition.

[Table 4.3.1: Fertilizer consumption - farmer vs recommended]

4.3 > 4.

4.4 Main Causes of Soil Fertility Decline and Soil Degradation

Soil fertility decline and soil degradation in Trinidad and Tobago result from a complex combination of socioeconomic and technical problems, which cannot be separated from the general decline in the agricultural sector and hence the lack of investment in technical inputs such as fertilizers and soil amendments. Some of the reasons are listed as follows:

Technical
1. Low levels of application of limestone to counteract soil acidity.

2. Farming on marginal soil (class V, VI, VIII) with rapid depletion of organic matter, fertility and loss of soil through erosion.

3. Unbalanced fertilizer application. The available data indicated low total applications of fertilizers on the major crops except vegetables and unbalanced application with excessive use of nitrogen fertilizers and low levels of P, K, Ca, Mg.

4. Acidification of soils with consequently lower exchange capacity due to urea use (17 700 tons in 2000).

5. Loss of soil structure due to organic matter depletion and lack of crop rotation.

Socioeconomic
The socioeconomic characteristics of Caribbean agriculture are well defined and include an aging farming population, excessive dependence on export markets, absence of marketing and processing capability and both tariff and non-tariff barriers. These influence the incomes generated by agriculture and hence the investment in agricultural development.

4.4 > 4.

4.5 Opportunities and Knowledge Base

There are significant opportunities for promotion of improved soil fertility and plant nutrition in Trinidad and Tobago.

The soil resources in the country have been mapped, described and classified under the National, USDA and FAO systems and the information is available through G.I.S.

A computerized data base exists from years of soil testing data on farmers' cropping programme and soil fertility levels.

A knowledge base exists with respect to fertilizer recommendations and agronomic requirements for all major crops – cacao and coffee, citrus, coconuts, sugarcane, vegetables and fruit crops, determined by trials both at experiment station and on farms.

A research infrastructure exists, appropriately staffed and equipped both at the Central Experiment Station, U.W.I. and parastatal enterprises.

The farming population is literate and trained.

However, soil fertility and plant nutrition efforts are strongly linked to the external agricultural environment and the levels of farmer confidence in the future development of the agricultural sector. Additionally there are opportunities for the promotion of organic products and niche markets for fruits and vegetables that are extremely dependent on soil fertility.

4.5 > 4.

5. Hot spots

5.1 Weather Variability

5.2 Land-related Constraints

5.3 Infrastructure

5.4 Security

5.5 Financial Assistance

5.6 Water-related Constraints

5.7 Other constraints

5. > top

5.1 Weather Variability

Global effects of global warming also affect agricultural production in Trinidad. The extreme dry weather of 1997 was attributed to the effect of El Nino on the weather system in the Caribbean. This resulted in reduced coffee production in the following year. The lack of financial resources by both private farmers and state-owned agricultural enterprises to deal with adverse weather conditions (irrigation systems during the dry season; proper disease management practices for greater control during the wet season) is a major challenge facing the agricultural sector.

5.1 > 5.

5.2 Land-related constraints

Squatter farming on state lands and hillsides is rampant in both rural and urban areas. On the hillside areas the consequence of this is a rise in soil erosion due to slash and burn agricultural practices and inadequate soil management by hillside farmers. Low land areas such as the Nariva Swamp are also affected by improper land use. Environmentalists have repeatedly warned of the impending damage to the natural swamp ecosystems as a result of insecticide and fertilizer effluents from rice farms in the area.

5.2 > 5.

5.3 Infrastructure

The paucity of infrastructure in the agricultural sector is a constraint to the growth and sustainability of the farming community. Inadequate and poor access roads, frequent flooding as a result of the absence or deterioration of drainage systems, and insufficient marketing facilities around the country are some of the major hindrances to production noted by farmers.

5.3 > 5.

5.4 Security

The high incidence of land grabbing is a deterrent to farming activities.

5.4> 5.

5.5 Financial Assistance

The agricultural sector is not readily supplied with loans and guarantees to ensure the level of investment that would meaningfully boost production through mechanisation, etc.

The wages in agriculture are not competitive with those in the commercial and industrial sectors.

5.5> 5.

5.6 Water-related constraints

Water storage structures, pumps, channels and drains are insufficient. Also there is an inadequate institutional and legislative framework to manage the water resources effectively for sustainable use and development.

5.6 > 5.

5.7 Other constraints to sustainable agriculture

Land use issues

Encroachment on prime agricultural lands and land conversion

Land tenure and land policy

Conflicts in land use

Conflicts related to use of water resources

Inadequate use of water resources

Concentration of agrochemicals and pollutants

Genetic erosion and biodiversity depletion (risk areas)

5.7 > 5

6. Bright spots

6.3 Other response indicators

6. > top

6.1 Land-related response indicators

Land use policy reform and regulation
Development of a land use reform policy by the Government of Trinidad and Tobago (GOTT), aimed at providing greater flexibility in allowing changes in land use consistent with economic development and environmental and conservation issues. Specifically, the reformed land use policy aims to provide:

improved management of State-owned lands;

control and regularisation of illegal occupation; and

reduced legal impediments to agricultural contracts on private lands

Revision of the standard agricultural lease
Revision of the Standard Agricultural Lease in 1992, in order to promote efficiency in the management and use of the state’s land resources. The revised lease incorporates terms that impose sanctions on environmental damage, ensure water use efficiency, and promote long-term productive use.

Revision of the urban regional planning legislation
Proposed implementation of a new Urban and Regional Planning Act in which clearly defined policies, standards and procedures will be established to ensure that:

Comprehensive land use (development) plans are prepared that allow for the effective involvement of those affected at the local, regional and national levels

Appropriate land use regulation and site-specific standards are known to land owners

Procedures for the processing and review of development applications are transparent and consistently applied.

Development of an Agricultural State Land Information System
The Land Information System being developed by the Ministry of Agriculture, Land and Marine Resources (MALMR) is intended to enhance the existing database on agricultural state lands in the country. Specifically, the system will comprise an inventory on land tenure status, land use and land values, topography, physical development, occupancy rights etc.

National Parks and Wildlife Bill
Draft legislation has been completed for the proposed National Parks and Wildlife Bill. The legislation is intended for the establishment of a Parks and Wildlife Authority which will have responsibility for the effective management and conservation of the nation’s parks and wildlife reserves.

6.1 > 6.

6.2 Water-related response indicators

Improved institutional and organisational support towards the proper use and
management of the land and water resources of the country.
Proposed establishment of an irrigation division within the MALMR; Establishment of the Environmental Management Authority; Revitalisation of the National Agricultural Marketing Development Company (NAMDEVCO), the country’s major agricultural marketing agency, along with the establishment of greater rural retail markets across the country. In 1997 twelve rural retail markets were built and commissioned; and restructuring and refinancing of the Agricultural Development Bank (ADB) is well on its way. The establishment of the Youth Agricultural Credit and Training programme, created to provide credit and technical assistance to young farmers in non-traditional activities, is just one example of the many successful outcomes of ADB’s enhanced support services to the farming community.

6.2 > 6.

6.3 Other response indicators

Sustainable land use systems - government incentives
The Government of Trinidad and Tobago currently offers cash incentives for the construction of soil conservation infrastructures such as contour drains, contour banking, ridging and terracing, terrace outlets or check dams.

Government also assists farmers who have been affected by flooding.

Farmer training in scientific soil conservation practices is also provided through the Extension Division of the Ministry of Agriculture Land and Marine Resources (MALMR).

6.3 > 6.

7. Challenges and viewpoints

7.1 Marine Resources

7.2 Land Resources

7. > top

7.1 Marine Resources

Marine ecosystems are under environment threat from land-based and marine activities. Issues of concern include over-exploitation of fish species, destruction of wetlands, degradation of marine habitats and ecosystems and pollution from land-based sources. Moreover, the need to sustainably manage the marine ecosystems sometimes conflicts with demands for recreation, tourism, food production and transportation.

For purposes of management, the living marine resources are separated into inshore coastal fisheries and offshore fisheries. These two fisheries present different challenges in sustainable management.

These are several challenges to management of the inshore coastal fisheries. Several species of fish are overexploited. Overexploitation is a consequence of the open-access nature of the inshore fisheries, weak resource management and over-capitalisation. The consequences for fisherfolk have been increasing fishing effort, falling yields and declining financial returns. In addition, the coastal marine environment is being degraded as a result of land-based activities such as destruction of wetlands and pollution from agricultural, industrial and residential sources.

Challenges to sustainable managemnet of the offshore fisheries include data limitations on the resource, the absence of adequate monitoring mechanisms and inadequate enforcement against illegal fishing.

There are several avenues for growth of the fisheries subsector. Targeting under-utilised and unutilised fisheries for increased fishing effort is one growth avenue. Development of the ornamental fish industry and aquaculture presents other avenues for growth. Additionally, improvements in marketing and post-harvest infrastructure and technology can support continued growth of exports.

7.1 > 7.

7.2 Land Resources

The MALMR has responsibility for sustainable management and conservation of the land and water resources used in farming.

In the farm subsector current production methods are causing concern because of the negative impact on the quality of land, biological diversity, human health, rivers and the marine environment. Sustainable management of farmlands poses two major challenges. First is the need to maximise output without significantly reducing soil fertility. Another challenge is to minimise the negative impact of production on downstream ecosystems and human health.

7.2 > 7

8. References and related internet links

8.1 References

8.2 Related internet links

8. > top

8.1 References

Central Statistical Office, 1998 Quarterly Bulletin.

Central Bank of Trinidad and Tobago, 1997 Overseas Trade Report. Imports 115-117.

Survey of Agricultural Fertilizer Importers- (National Agro-chemicals, Southern Chemicals, Caribbean Chemicals, Carlsen Chemicals and Tracmac) by personnel of the Central Experiment Station, MFPMR.

Ministry of Food Production and Marine Resources (MFPMR)- Research Division, Plant Quarantine: Application for duty free entry on chemicals / fertilizers.

DHV Consultants BV 1999 - Water Resources Management Strategy for Trinidad and Tobago - Final Report

Director Regional Administration North, 1997. Report of the Committee to Prepare a Proposal for the Development of a Policy Framework for Water for Agriculture under the Agricultural Sector Investment Program. Ministry of Agriculture, Land and Marine Resources.

TAHAL Consulting Engineers, 1992a. Basic Agricultural Studies, Final Report

TAHAL Consulting Engineers, 1992c. Water Management in Trinidad and Tobago, Basic Agricultural Studies, Consultant Working Paper.

8.1 > 8.

8.2 Related internet links

Country in General

The Government of the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago
http://www.gov.tt/

The Ministry of Agriculture, Land and Marine Resources, Trinidad and Tobago
http://www.agriculture.gov.tt

CARDI: Caribbean Agricultural Research and Development Institute
http://www.cardi.org/
annotation: "CARDI is the foremost agricultural research and development organization in the Caribbean. Established since 1975, CARDI has been making a significant impact on agriculture through technical assistance, technology development and technology transfer in the areas of plant pathology, virology, nematology, agronomy, soil and animal sciences. CARDI also has collaborative arrangements with over 50 regional and international research and development organizations." [extract from What is CARDI?, 11/07/01]

NEMA: National Emergency Management Agency
http://www.nema.gov.tt
annotation: NEMA's mission is "To coordinate a network of agencies and individuals within the country to direct their efforts to the maximum preservation of life and the protection of property in times of disaster."

Land, Water, and Plant Nutrition

AQUASTAT
http://www.fao.org/waicent/faoinfo/agricult/agl/aglw/aquastat/aquastat.htm

SWMCOL: The Trinidad and Tobago Solid Waste Management Company Limited
http://www.swmcol.co.tt

Water Technology - The Web Site For The Water Industry - Trinidad Water Plant Rehabilitation
http://www.water-technology.net/projects/construction/

Others

The University of the West Indies
http://www.uwi.tt

Tourism and Industrial Development Company of Trinidad and Tobago
http://www.tidco.co.tt/
annotation: "Mission: To be a catalyst for ensuring that Trinidad and Tobago places first in the rankings for the global competitiveness of nations." [Mission Statement as stated on web site]

SmallShop - Trinidad and Tobago Web Site Directory
http://www.smallshop.com/triniwebsites.htm

Trinidad and Tobago country page of the U.S. Department of Energy's Fossil Energy International site.
http://www.fe.doe.gov/international/trinidad-tobago.html

The Chaguaramas Development Authority.
http://www.chagdev.com

8.2 > 8.

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